Three-toed Box Turtle

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Kansas Herpetofaunal Atlas

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Three-toed Box Turtle

Terrapene triunguis (Agassiz, 1857)

Overview

The terrestrial Three-toed Box Turtle is characterized by a short tail, a rigid upper shell, a lower shell with a distinct movable hinge, three claws on each hind foot, and a uniform, patternless lower shell. The upper shell is uniform tan or olive, sometimes with faint radiating light or dark lines. The lower shell is uniform tan or olive. The limbs and tail are brown, gray, or olive. The head is brown or olive, with small bright orange, red, or yellow spots. Sometimes the heads of males are completely red. Generally males have red eyes, whereas the eyes of females are yellowish brown. Males have longer tails and normally grow slightly larger than females.The head, throat, and forelegs of males are often have bright yellow, red, or orange spots.
The plastron is a light yellow to tan with the sutures between scutes appearing a darker brown.
Adults normally 113- 150 mm (4 1/2-6 inches) in carapace length. The largest specimen from Kansas is a female (KU 218958) from Wyandotte County with a carapace length of 179 mm (7 inches), collected by Tom Sullivan and Stanley D. Roth on 1 June 1989. This is the maximum carapace length throughout the range (Powell et al., 2016).

Distribution

Older records in Collins (1993) from Coffey County (KU 3017-20) are too imprecise to map, however, recent photographs turned in by Don Eccles lend support that this turtle may still exist there. Collins (1993) did not plot a 1912 record (USNM 55588) from Marion County and a 1925 record (KU 1918) from Stafford County. Both records are given to the county only and are therefore too imprecise to map. He also did not plot records for Riley and Pottawatomie counties. All of these records are in need of corroboration.
Pleistocene fossil specimens are known from as far west as McPherson and Meade counties, indicating the possibility of local relict populations existing in suitable habitat along the major drainages into the Flint Hills.
A specimen (KU 1918) from Stafford County listed in Collins (1974) was reidentified as Terrapene ornata prior to Collins (1982).
Oelrichhe (1953) described the holotype of Terrapene llanensis (p. 35; UMMP 26957; now synonomized under T. mexicana [triunguis] by Milstead 1967) from the posterior portion of a carapace and hindlobe of a plastron along with some postcranial specimens from the last interglacial Lone Tree Arroyo locality, Meade County, Kansas.
Individual Three-toed Box Turtles are commonly collected as pets and released outside of their range.

Reproduction

The Three-toed Box Turtle is a terrestrial species of open woodlands, only occasionally found in pastures and around marshes. This turtle is active from April to October, spending the winter months buried two feet deep in the soil or well under leaf-covered rock overhangs to escape freezing temperatures. On warm winter days, this species may emerge from the ground, and some specimens are killed by rapidly falling temperatures which prevent them from returning underground or beneath shelter.
Optimal daily air temperatures for this turtle range from 84° to 100°F, although it probably becomes active at air temperatures as low as 65°F in the spring. Three-toed Box Turtles are active during daylight, usually in the morning or after rains. During extreme heat, they retire to shaded areas. On 12 May, Capron (1987) observed 78 of these turtles on or along a 122-mile stretch of highway between Oxford and Independence; about a third of them had been killed by vehicles.
This turtle breeds primarily during the spring months, but some mating may occur during summer and fall. Courtship involves several phases. First, the male approaches the female with his head held high, exposing and pushing his orange throat. She partially withdraws into her shell, and he circles her, nipping and nudging the edge of her shell sometimes for as much as an hour until she opens it. Then the male mounts her, hooking his hind toes into the space between the rear edges of her upper and lower shells. She responds initially by clamping her shells on his toes and holding him tightly. Evidently, he tickles the rear inside edge of her upper shell, causing her to open her lower shell. Subsequently, the male positions his hind feet near the rear edge of the female's lower shell. He extends his head forward, exposing his bright throat again, while his front feet touch her shell. Finally, he slips backward with the rear edge of his shell on the ground, positions his cloaca with hers, and copulation occurs.
Nesting takes place from May to July. The female digs her nest with her hind feet at twilight and lays her eggs at night. The nest is dug in loose sand or soil to a depth of 76.2-101.6 mm (3-4 inches) on an elevated patch of ground. Each female lays 2-8 elongate white eggs which generally hatch in three months. The hatchlings may spend the winter in the nest, emerging the following spring.
Three-toed Box Turtles do not have sex chromosomes, their gender is determined environmentally by incubation temperature at a critical point in their development. The pivot temperature for determining male vs. female is still unknown. In general, higher temperatures produce more females (Dodd 2001).
Legler (1960) reported a strong female-biased sex ratio (1:1.7 M:F) in the populations he studied in Kansas. Schwartz and Schwartz (1974) reported a slightly male-biased sex ratios (1:1.2 M:F) in the Three-toed Box Turtle population they studied in central Missouri. Schwartz et al. (1984) estimated the population density of Three-toed Box Turtles at their site in central Missouri to be 18.4 to 26.9 individuals per hectare.
The Three-toed Box Turtle is omnivorous, eating mushrooms, berries, fruit, grass, snails, crayfishes, earthworms, numerous insects, fishes, frogs, toads, salamanders, lizards, small snakes, and carrion. It has been suggested that Three-toed Box Turtles may be important seed dispersers (Dodd 2001).
Although primarily terrestrial, Three-toed Box Turtles can occasionally be found soaking in shallow pools. They have also been observed swimming across rivers and reservoirs.
Palmer et al. (2019) studied Three-toed Box Turtle populations in an urban park and a protected rural forest. Annual survival was high at each site 79 and 93% respectively. Winter kill was the greatest mortality factor.
Data from sampling studies (e.g. Legler 1960) show that Three-toed Box Turtle population structure is heavily skewed toward larger turtles. Young Three-toed Box Turtle are difficult to detect by the current methods in which they are sampled. This has resulted in researchers (e.g. Dodd 2001) reporting that Three-toed Box Turtles possess high hatchling/juvenile mortality. When in fact, this is not known, and as there are no data on the survivorship of Three-toed Box Turtles.

Remarks

First definately reported from Kansas by Cragin (1880) based on a specimen observed by William Wheeler at Ottawa, Franklin County. The earliest existing specimen is KU 3014 was collected 7 miles north of Caney, Montgomery County, on 5 September 1915. A specimen exists (USNM 55588) that was collected in Marion County (no additional details) during July-August 1912, however this species is not known to occur in Marion County.
Martin et al. (2013) found support for a western (including triunguis, mexicana, and yucatana) and an eastern group (carolina, baurii, and major, plus coahuila) within T. carolina. They recommended that the former be elevated to species status (T. mexicana, the oldest name) with three subspecies (including Kansas triunguis). However, Fritz and Havas (2014) argued against the recognition of mexicana (including triunguis) as a separate species because of demonstrated genetic introgression between triunguis and carolina. Nevertheless, because interspecific hybridization is known between many other closely related turtle species, Martin et al. (2014) reaffirmed and bolstered (2020, 2021) their support for recognizing mexicana (including triunguis from Kansas) and carolina as separate species.
The taxonomy vetted by the SSAR Standardized English Names list serves as the framework for the Kansas Herpetofaunal Atlas. However, the SSAR list is currently suspended, and the evidence brought forward by Martin et al. (2020, 2021) has has been used in other recent publications and so has been adopted here.
The Chelonian Research Foundation Turtle Taxonomy Working Group (Rhodin 2021) tentatively recognized the Three-toed Box Turtle as a separate species (Terrapene triunguis) (see taxonomic comments on p. 368; account p. 187), rather than a subspecies of either T. carolina or T. mexicana. I have followed their taxonomy.There are currently 138 'turtle races' conducted annually across Kansas (Alex Heeb pers. comm.). These are common community and organizational events typically conducted in conjunction with fairs and festivals. Three-toed and Ornate Box Turtles are the most commonly utilized species, however, it is not uncommon to have Spiny Softshells, Painted Turtles, Pond Sliders, Common Snapping Turtles, and even False and Ouachita Map Turtles. While typically well-meaning, the turtles are often held w/o access to food, water, or cover prior to (and during) these events. Events organizers and their participants to ensure that the turtles are not held captive for long periods leading up to the event, kept safe, sanitary, and appropriately fed while in captivity, and released at the point of capture soon after the event.
Three-toed Box Turtles are not listed as species with conservation concerns and have no special protections in Kansas. The Three-toed Box Turtle is listed by the two worldwide conservation ranking indicators; IUCN Red List (currently as Terrapene carolina) ('near threatened') and CITES (also currently as Terrapene carolina) (Appendix II; not necessarily now threatened with extinction but that may become so unless trade is closely controlled).
The conversion/loss of habitat has arguably had the greatest effect on the Box Turtle populations in Kansas. Automobiles are a leading cause of Three-toed Box Turtle mortality when their activity patterns overlap with highways and many thousands of Three-toed Box Turtle are crushed on Kansas roads every year. Yet, populations in Kansas appear to be stable.
Box turtles are long-lived and many adults have established home ranges. Tracking studies initially demonstrated that releasing box turtles into a new environment may increase their mortality (Hester et al. 2008) however, more recent studies (e.g. Seibert and Belzer, 2013) have repeatedly shown this isn't always the case.
There are wide-reported accounts that box turtles sequester toxins from the mushrooms they eat, that may then be transferred to organisms (including humans) that ingest box turtles. This myth stems from an anecdote published in Babcock (1919) when discussing the economic importance of box turtles in New England. He wrote "The flesh of this turtle is edible but is not generally used as food. During the coal miners' strike of 1902, in the vicinity of Scranton, Pennsylvania, many miners roamed over the hills and captured and ate turtles which made them sick. It is probable that these were Box Turtles, and the flesh may have been rendered temporarily poisonous to man from a diet of toadstools, of which the turtles are very found and which does not seem to poison them." It was never determined what species of turtles were eaten or that it was the turtles that made these people sick. Furthermore, it has never been shown that box turtles are capable of sequestering toxins in their body. We do know that Native Americans would consume box turtles.
Burt and Hoyle (1934) first commented on the number of individual Three-toed Box Turtles that are killed by vehicles on highways every year. Over a two year span (2004-2005) Taggart (2006; Distribution and status of Kansas herpetofauna) counted every Three-toed Box Turtle they encountered across the state, resulting in 41 observations. Of those, 13 were discovered alive on the road and 12 were dead on the road. Thirteen were found active off the road and one was under a cover object.
Beltz (1998) reported that two persons (one from Kansas and the other from Louisiana) were charged with the illegally buying and selling more than 1,000 box turtles. Dodd (2001) adds that the two were also convicted, however he does not cite a source. It is not stated where the turtles were collected from or what species they were.

Three-toed and Ornate Box Turtles may rarely hybridize where they are sympatric Cureton (2011). The normal color and pattern variation within each species is extensive, and extremes are not infrequently labeled as hybrids. Molecular studies are required to determine their exact identity.
Based on a captive specimen, Snider and Bowler (1992) reported a maximum longevity for this species of 26 years, five months, and six days.

References

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Rhodin, Anders G. J., Scott Thomson, Georgios L. Georgalis, Hans-Volker Karl, Igo G. Danilov, Akio Takahashi, Marcelo S. de la fuente, Jason R. Bourque, Massimo Delfino, Roger Bour, John B. Iverson, H. Bradley Shaffer, and Peter Paul van Dijk. 2015. Turtles and tortoises of the world during the rise and global spread of humanity: First checklist and review of extinct pleistocene and holocene chelonians. Chelonian Research Monographs (5):66.

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Last Updated: 07/08/2024 1:40:20 PM CT

THE CENTER FOR NORTH AMERICAN HERPETOLOGY — Accessed: Tuesday 09 June 2026 13:12 CT